UP TO THE STARTING LINE: What Happened on All the Continents Before 11,000 B.C.?

The Origin and Spread of Early Humans

The chapter begins with the defining point in historical comparison set around 11,000 B.C. This marks notable developments such as the initial settlement of the Americas, the end of the Pleistocene Era, and beginnings of plant and animal domestication in several global regions.

Evolutionary Beginnings

Homo sapiens began their evolutionary path separate from other animals approximately 7 million years ago in Africa with the differentiation of certain ape populations. Human ancestors such as Homo erectus began to spread beyond Africa roughly 1.8 million years ago, reaching areas like Southeast Asia. By about half a million years ago, human fossils evolved features more aligned with modern Homo sapiens and had begun using basic stone tools and fire.

Expansion Beyond Africa

Homo sapiens eventually spread to Europe and Asia, where they developed more distinct skeletal features, yet their tool-making skills remained relatively crude until about 50,000 years ago, marking the "Great Leap Forward." This period was characterized by the appearance of more sophisticated artifacts across various regions, facilitating a more effective adaptation to diverse environments and significant cultural advancements such as art.

Colonization of Australia and New Guinea

The colonization of Australia and New Guinea highlighted significant navigational achievement with evidence of watercraft use dating back 40,000 to 30,000 years. This was a pivotal moment demonstrating early human capability for maritime travel.

The Extinction of Megafauna

Another significant event was the extinction of large species in Australia shortly after human arrival, posing questions about the direct impacts of humans on their environments, possibly due to overhunting or habitat modifications, despite debates on whether climatic changes were a factor.

Further Human Migration

Humans eventually settled colder Northern regions of Eurasia by around 20,000 years ago and started moving into North and South America via the Bering land bridge or coastal sea routes by at least 14,000 years ago. The appearance of Clovis sites around 11,000 B.C. in North America suggested rapid migration and settlement across the Americas, leading to the extinction of many large mammal species in these regions too, similar to earlier patterns observed in Australia.

Conclusion and Speculations on Development

The chapter concludes by considering the possible advantages and disadvantages continents had in developing complex societies earlier, with Eurasia eventually leading due to a combination of factors not solely related to head starts or environmental conditions which the book aims to explore further in subsequent chapters.